Forest Ecology and Ecosystem Management

“FOREST ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT”.

I. INTRODUCTION.

Chapter 1. Scope and Importance of Forest Ecology (J. Fralish).

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A general introduction including various definitions and basic concepts..

Definitions: Forest ecology, science, interrelationships, species, populations, communities, environment. Relationship to plant, terrestrial, aquatic and global ecology. Levels of integration (atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, individual, population, community, landscape and ecosystem, hierarchy). Scope of forest ecology: questions to be answered. Forest ecology as a science and as an environmental (problem solving) approach. Problems of the resource manager. Importance of applying forest ecology concepts; silvics and silviculture..

Chapter 2. History of Forest Ecology and Concepts (J. Fralish).

A brief listing of the development of forest ecology terminology, concepts, and theory. which is integrated with that of plant ecology. Research hot topics..

Early Scientists and concepts: Haeckel, Schimper, Warming, Cooper, Cowles, Clements, Weaver. Individualistic Concept (Gleason 1935). Ecosystem (Tansley 1935). Eastern Deciduous Forest (Braun 1950). Climax concept (Whittaker 1953). Plant life history studies; continuum concept and gradient analysis (Curtis 1960; Whittaker 1959). Forest Ecology Research Topics of 1960s and 1970s: Ecosystem concept -- IBP, biomes, and Hubbard Brook 1964; nutrient cycling (Bormann and Likens 1975); community ecology and succession; pollination ecology; fire ecology. Forest Ecology Research Topics of Late 1970s and 1980s: Biomass and nutrient pools (1978-1983); seedbanks; plant population biology; mycorrhizal relationships; ecological Land Classification (Habitat Typing); community succession and management; old growth and management; presettlement vegetation; landscape ecology and fragmentation; gap dynamics; disturbance and patch dynamics; air pollution and community response. Plant Ecology Research Topics of.

mid 1980s to 2005. History of ecosystem concept; Tansley 1935; Clement's quasiorganism. International Biological Program; research. Global warming; ecological land classification; conservation biology and biodiversity, restoration ecology; woody dead material; soil carbon dioxide sequestering; community ecology and management; ecosystem management and sustainability; invasive species, geographic information systems (GIS)..

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II. THE FOREST ENVIRONMENT 1:.

OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS.

Chapter 3. Introduction to the Forest Environment. (J. Fralish).

Introduction. Importance of distinguishing between operational vs. non-operational environmental factors. Brief coverage of abiotic factors: climate (solar radiation, precipitation, temperature, wind, etc.), soil (texture, bulk density, depth, moisture, available water holding capacity, nutrients), fire (intensity, periodicity, timing, type of vegetation, etc.). Biotic factors: Other plants (competition for water and nutrients, physical interference, allelopathy), microorganisms (mycorrhizal relationships, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, parasitism—insects and disease)..

Definitions: forest regions/biomes, macroclimate, mesoclimate, forest regions, soil groups. Interaction between macroclimate, microclimate, forest/plants, and soil. A short review of the macroclimate, soil and tree species of major forest regions. This chapter develops the basis for relating forest regions and associated soil groups to macro- and mesoclimatic patterns..

Chapter 4. Macroclimate and Mesoclimate (J. Fralish).

A review of basic climate concepts with emphasis on how macro (continental) and meso (mountain, water body) patterns have determined the location of various vegetation biomes and formations, particularly the forest regions of North America..

Climate and weather defined. Macroclimate defined; macro-climate-vegetation-soil interaction model. Importance--macroclimate determines location of forest regions, deserts, prairie, arctic, etc. The climate-biome model. Major macroclimatic factors: solar radiation, precipitation, temperature, wind, relative humidity and evapotranspiration. Macroclimate of North America. Solar radiation and development of primary circulation cells; convection; advection. High and low pressure systems. Differential heating of land and water surfaces. Centers of actions--origin and classification of air masses; continental vs. maritime climate..

Mesoclimate: Modification of air mass characteristics. Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains--due point, orographic precipitation, rain shadow, wet and dry lapse rates; heat of vaporization; Foehn (Chinook) and Santa Anna winds. Great Lakes effects-beech and maple south and east. Mixing with other air masses from Canada and Gulf of Mexico. Climatic patterns of forested regions--P/E ratios; Thornthwaite approach (actual and potential evapotranspiration; soil water balance); Holdridge model; other classification approaches..

Link forest regions and subregions to maco- and mesoclimatic patterns across North America. Map of North American forest regions, short list of major tree species and community types in each region. While concentrating on North America, similar climatic and forest patterns will be shown for other regions of the northern hemisphere; e.g., the climate , soil, and forests of the circumpolar boreal (spruce-fir) forest of Scandinavia and Northern Russia; the deciduous forest of southeastern China which is similar to southeastern United States (over 45 similar genera), Western Europe. Global climatic change and its projected effect..

Chapter 5. Microclimate (J. Fralish).

Emphasis on how the microclimate of a given site (area.

Microclimate defined; site environment. The forest plant as a soda straw between the soil and the atmosphere. Major microclimate factors: solar radiation, temperature, wind, relative humidity and evapotranspiration. Direct solar radiation; wave lengths and energy of the solar beam; absorption by the tree leaf; avoidance of heat load; use of infrared radiation to monitor tree/forest health or determine land use. Solar radiation budget--Gate's models. Quanti­fying direct solar radiation (DSR). Langleys; Angle of Incidence Factors determining amount of DSR reaching a site. Factors determining amount of DSR reaching a site; tables of Langleys for aspect, % slope, latitude and season of year combinations. Effect of altitude, time of day, topographic shading, type of vegetation and cloud cover on radiation quantity and quality. Aspect-% slope-latitude interaction to determine the hottest (poorest) and coolest (best) sites from Central America to Canada. Effect on evapotranspiration (ET, rate of water lost from the soil reservoir). Slope position; solar window; conditions for an "open window" and heat loss from ridgetops; cold air drainage into valleys or low sites; effect on ET; frost pockets and muskeg in northern hardwood-conifer and spruce-fir forests; effect on growth and forest composition; apple and peach orchards on ridgetops; windthrow and cradle topography; germination of hemlock and yellow birch on stumps, logs and knolls; germination of sugar maple in cradles and depressions; seed germination temperatures. Wind; destructive forces; speeds within the canopy; effect on evapotranspiration. Relative humidity; temperature dependent; variation from night to day; vapor pressure deficit; effect on evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration--integrating the microclimatic factors; rate of water loss/unit time from forest sites; forest growth and community composition differences across the landscape; examples from the central hardwoods, Appalachians, Rocky Mountain conifer forests and other regions..

Examples of forest growth and community composition differences across the landscape; examples from the central hardwoods, Appalachians, Rocky Mountain conifer forests and Europe..

Chapter 6. Forest Soil (J. Schoonover and J. Fralish).

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An introduction to the five soil-forming factors variation in forest soil development, characteristics, and type. A comparison of forest soil with agricultural soil. A concentration on soil properties that determine soil available water holding capacity and available nutrients. A review of the soil biotic component with emphasis on the importance of earthworms, mycorrhizae, and other microbial processes. Tree growth and community composition will be related to available soil water and nutrients also are emphasized using examples from research.

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Soil defined. Forest soil vs. agricultural soil. Importance--water, nutrients, anchorage, root growing space. Composition--mineral, organic matter, air, water. Physical properties (texture, stoniness, bulk density, layers impermeable to roots (hardpan, fragipan, bedrock. Estimating soil available water capacity (AWC); pressure plate methods; regression models to quantify AWC (%); estimating AWC for horizons and the profile (integrating soil physical properties; range of values. Relationship of forest biomass, basal area and species distribution to AWC gradient (Northern Hardwood and Central Hardwood regions). Cation exchange capacity--clay minerals; isomorphic substitution; nutrient retention, calculating nutrient levels for horizons and for the profile. Effect of water table depth on forest growth and species composition..

Soil forming factors--process of podzolization and development of forest soil horizons; climate. parent material, vegetation (hardwood vs. conifer vs. prairie), topography, and time. Podzols and podzolized soils vs. lateritic soils. Add animals to list of soil forming factors— soil insects, earthworms, larger animals, micro-organisms..

Plant and animal soil processes on soil development and fertility; rhizosphere, arbuscular mycorrhizae symbiosis, mutualism, bacteria and root nodules; other microbial activity, particulate organic matter equilibrium and decomposition, decomposers, mineralization, nitrogen transformations, effect of earthworms on plants and seedling establishment. Parasitic fungi..

Modern classification of soils, review of soil orders--soil, climate, vegetation relationships model. Surface organic layers and classification. Maps of North American soil orders and suborders. Organic soils and classification..

Chapter 7. Site Concept (J. Fralish).

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Integrating the effects of integrating operational environmental factors such as macroclimate, microclimate, topography and soil into various combinations that create a physical site environment. Includes a consideration of site quality determination and classification..

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Site defined. Site conditions; physiographic site types, operational environment. Soil/microclimate/ community relationships/interaction. Site quality evaluation for timber, recreation, water, wildlife, special uses (e.g., rare/endangered species). Timber--tree growth; stem analysis; site index; site index curves; biological growth curves; density effect; habitat typing. Predicting site quality using regression analysis..

III. THE FOREST ENVIRONMENT 2:.

HISTORICAL ECOLOGY, FIRE, & DISTURBANCE.

Chapter 8. Basic Concepts and Disturbance Types (C. Ruffner).

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An ecological view of disturbance as a natural necessary phenomenon. Includes a review of the range of common and potential disturbance types, their effects, and how settlement has changed the impact (or lack of it) on the forest over time..

Define: Disturbance; perturbation; reduction of competition. Definitions of disturbance regime characteristics: Types, endogenous vs. exogenous causes, distribution, frequency, return interval, rotation period, predictability, magnitude (intensity) severity, synergism (White and Picket 1985), spatial and temporal influences. Patch dynamics. Effect on biodiversity (normal curve). Models for examining the effect of disturbance. Impacts of: Wind (tornadoes, hurricanes); animals (trampling, grazing); disease; insect defoliation, girdling, and burrowing; climatic fluctuations-global warming; drought; flooding; tree falls, natural death. Effect of deer browsing on native herbs. Documenting historical disturbance--early explorers records, country land use records; original land survey records, tree ring analysis (dendrochronology). Case studies; effects; recovery time..

Chapter 9. Fire (Historical) Ecology (C. Ruffner).

A review of fire, its beneficial and pervasive influences and uses..

Fire--historical view; fire in presettlement time; level of disturbance. Fire return times and cycles. Physical/chemical process. Chemical composition of fuel. Ignition temperatures. Products/ residuals. Types of fire: ground; surface, crown. Uses of fire in management: control invading/ exotic species, open forest to increase light penetration for regeneration; reduce fuel loading; open mineral seedbed; stimulate plant sprouting response (vegetative reproduction); stimulation of flowering; scarification of seed coats, seed dispersion (early opening vs. serotinous cones); increased germination. Effect of fire regime: diversity, stability, resistance and resilience. Biogeochemical consequences (nutrient budgets, mineralization, mobilization). Fire (disturbance) dependent community (cover) types in forest regions of North America.

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IV. THE INDIVIDUAL PLANT--STRUCTURE & FUNCTION.

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Chapter 10. Leaf Structure and Function (J. Zaczek).

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A review of leaf function and the physiological basis for ecological characteristics: spring growth; maximum productivity; shade tolerance; drought tolerance; stress tolerance and avoidance..

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Overview. Leaf structure: Epidermis; guard cells; spongy mesophyll, palisade parenchyma; vascular system; cell structure; organelles. Photosynthesis: Structure of chloroplasts; stroma, grana thykaloids; pigments (Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, carotinoids, chlorophyll a/b protein-light harvesting complex); light (biochemical; temperature independent) and dark (physical, temperature dependent) reactions; Q10; NADHP; ATP; sugars and carbohydrates. Factors that induce stress (reduce photosynthesis and growth; change in photosynthate reallocation): 1) Light (diurnal cycle, sun leaves and leaves of shade intolerant species vs. those of shade tolerant species; compensation point; light saturation.

point; silvicultural operations; sudden exposure; acclimation); 2) temperature; 3) soil water (drought tolerance vs. drought avoidance mechanisms, water potential, water column) 4) carbon dioxide level; 5) air pollution; 6) secondary mortality agents. Use of remote sensing to detect stress and mortality in trees/forests. Respiration: structure of mitochrondria; generating and use of energy; temperature dependence. Deciduous vs. evergreen habit; nutrient retranslocation..

Chapter 11. Stem Structure and Function (J. Zaczek, J. Phelps).

A review of stem structure and architecture as determined by internal hormonal and external environmental controls..

Overview. General stem structure. Meristems: apical (height growth); lateral (cambium, radial growth); cork cambium (bark characteristics). Bud types: apical; lateral; suppressed-effect of auxin; effect of light and crown size on epicormic branching. Apical control: Auxin; stem/crown form: decurrent; deliquescent; excurrent; stem architecture through reiteration. Stem: Cross-sections of typical hardwood and conifer stems; xylem (transport and storage of photosynthate); phloem (transport of water and nutrients); rays. Cell types and tissues: Vessels; fibers; tracheids; parenchyma; intrusive growth; sapwood (relationship to leaf area); heartwood; growth rings. Growth Substances: auxin produced by developing leaves; determinate vs indeterminate growth; effect of auxin on lateral growth; cell size in early wood vs. late wood; diffuse porous vs. ring porous wood; effect of slope steepness-geotropism; reaction (tension, compression) wood; canopy gaps and light; asymmetrical crown development; effect on increment cores and growth rate. Damage to cambium: girdling; fire; callus tissue. Bark development..

Chapter 12. Root Structure and Function (J. Zaczek, J. Schoonover, J. Fralish).

The contribution of roots to tree growth, the effect of soil characteristics on root development, and the importance of mycorrhizae.

Overview. General functions: absorption; anchorage; storage; synthesis of amino acids. General root structure: Epidermis, cortex; endodermis, Casparian strip; xylem; phloem; root hairs; root cap. Growth: primary and secondary growth; radial growth; elongation; lateral roots; root grafts; adventitious buds; replacement roots (low auxin + high kinetin = root formation); root suckers or shoots (high auxin + low kinetin = shoot formation). Absorption of water as a physical phenomenon; absorption of nutrients (soil cation exchange sites, Casparian strip, active transport--energy needed). Mycorrhizae relationships (absorption system: extends the volume of soil utilized by roots, VAM). Root nodules: root + symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria; woody species involved. Root types: plate, heart, tap roots; variation by species; effect of soil characteristics on development (hardpan, fragipan, stoniness, water table).

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V. SPECIES GENECOLOGY AND AUTECOLOGY.

Chapter 13. Genecology (J. Zaczek).

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The application of genetic (species) concepts to forest species with orientation toward management practices including tree improvement, cloning, grafting; vegetation reproduction, seed orchards, hybridization, introgression, genetic engineering and acquired climatic adaptations..

Genecology defined. Species defined. Flexibility defined; genetic variation. Types of variation. Phenotypic variation (shade vs. sun leaves in woody species). Genotypic variation: 1) Race (Douglas-fir, lodgepole pine); 2) variety (ponderosa pine, southern red-cherrybark oak; bald-pond cypress); taxonomic splitters vs. lumpers; 3) ecotype; species with large geographic distribution (white oak) or occurs on two distinct site conditions (jack pine; northern white cedar; bur oak); local adaptation; speciation and diversity; practical importance; restriction on moving nursery planting stock long distances. Hybridization defined: examples in nature (recognized oak hybrids, lodgepole-jack pine, eastern cottonwood-other cottonwoods, black-red spruce, longleaf-loblolly pine). Introgression: powerful evolutionary process; backcross between hybrid and parent; black-blackjack oak; American chestnut research; disease resistance; genetic engineering. Fitness defined: maintenance of the species; geographic separation; mechanical specialization; timing differential; gene or chromosome incompatibility; sterility of hybrids; no intermediate habitats for hybrids. Fitness-flexibility compromise. Genetic gain/improvement: provenance testing; superior tree program; grafting ramets; seed orchards; sprouting; clones. Selection processes and results of favorable and unfavorable selection..

Chapter 14. Autecology (J. Fralish and J. Zaczek).

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Delineation of species ecological concepts with emphasis on species response to moisture and light; gradient. .

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Autecology definition and scope. Autecological attributes: Range (botanical, commercial). Law of ecological recourse. Shade tolerance: Defined; tolerance rating categories; light gradient; species response curves = gaussian curves; species by category; physical characteristics (crown density, height of lower live branches, seedling survival and growth in understory), chemical characteristics-ref. to light compensation and saturation points. Site requirements; distribution along more than one gradient (water and light; water and nutrients). Response to stress: avoidance vs. tolerance. Drought tolerance: Defined; xerophyte (tolerant); mesophyte (intolerant; moisture demanding); moisture intermediate species; moisture gradient; species response curves (ecological amplitude, fundamental niche). Hydrophyte (synonym: anerobophyte). Phreatophyte. Relationship between shade tolerance and drought tolerance or moisture demanding characters in species (most xerophytes are shade intolerant; most mesophytes are shade tolerant, climax species)..

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Chapter 15. Ecological Life History and Phenology of Trees (J. Fralish)..

A consideration of individual growth, development and adaptations from germination through the life cycle and into population ecology..

Ecological life history: Defined; reproduction (parent age, flower development, pollination ecology; pollen release, pollen distribution (vectors), pollination, fertilization, seed set, seed size--r and k selected species and intermediates, seed dormancy; seed dispersal, viability period, seedling establishment, seedling growth, insect/disease problems). Other survival mechanisms: Root collar sprouting and root sprouts, serotinous cones, thick heat resistant bark,.

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dormancy = grass stage, seed storage = seed banks. Leaf area index and live sapwood relationships; stem biomass; allometric equations for predicting biomass. Population biology: Growth and regulation of populations; selection; survival rates and survivorship curves; cohort life history tables; age and structure related to shade tolerance; density dependent factors (mortality, fecundity); aging as influenced by site quality and its effect on membrane integrity; secondary mortality agents.

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VI. THE FOREST COMMUNITY.

Chapter 16. Community Characteristics (J. Fralish).

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Communities considered in the abstract and as an entity with emphasis on characteristics and structure. This chapter also develops uses specific examples for demonstrating the relationship between forest tree species characteristics, communities, and soil-site relationships..

Community concept defined: Clements vs. Curtis/Whittaker. Attributes: Stratification (life form; Raunkiaer's classification?; stem size; crown position classes); community as an entity (stand) and in the abstract; stand defined (age, composition, development, condition). Competition: intraspecific; interspecific; changes in competition along soil moisture and light gradients. Evenaged vs. unevenaged stands. Populations, metapopulations; island biogeography..

Dynamics: Relationships between species (competition, interference, commensalism, mutualism, etc.); competition removed by disturbance; species realized niche vs. fundamental niche; obligate pioneer vs. facultative pioneer (Fralish 1988); invasion patterns from dry and wet sites; gap phase regeneration; self-thinning rule; continuum (coenoclines) of compositional stable and successional forests; structural changes; changes in species number (diversity), basal area and biomass along the gradient; response of herbs to canopy gaps..

Chapter 17. Forest Community Dynamics and Replacement (Succession).

A review of long-term and short-term of community replacement processes centered around species ecological attributes and environmental conditions..

Definition of succession, historical perspective and ecologists, Cowles, Cooper, Clements, Cain, allogenic succession-external factors; long-term environmental change over decades- xerosere, hydrosere; over centuries-presettlement communities, autogenic succession- internal factors; short-term change, community replacement, effect of species drought and shade tolerances, critical attributes; relationship between critical attributes and site conditions; law of competitive exclusion; limiting factors and compositional stability, dynamic stability; specific examples of succession..

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Chapter 18. North America Forest Regions and Community Types (Scott Franklin).

A synopsis of the climate, soil, and cover types of major forest regions..

Introduction. Forest regions, climatic patterns and parameters. A brief description of the forest community (cover) types/associations, climate, physiographic provinces and soil). Northern Spruce-Fir (Boreal) Forest). Northern Hardwood-Conifer Forest: 1) Great Lakes Section; 2) New England Section. Lowland Forest (of Northern Spruce-Fir and Northern Hardwood-Conifer Regions). Appalachian Mixed Hardwood-Conifer Forest. Central Hardwood Forest. Southeastern Pine-Hardwood Forest. Bottomland Forest (of Central Hardwoods and Southeastern Pine Hardwoods). Southern and Central Rocky Mountain Conifer Forest. Northern Rocky Mountain Conifer Forest. West Coast Mountain Forest: 1) Southern Section; 2) Northern Section..

Chapter 19. Community Sampling and Data Analysis (S. Franklin and J. Fralish).

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Optional chapter or may be shortened depending on space.

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An introduction to the methods for sampling, summarizing and analyzing community and environmental data to identify relationships and patterns. Includes a review of gradient analysis and classification..

Community sampling procedures. Community selection: delineating boundaries; homogeneity; size; age; amount of disturbance. Sampling system: quadrat; size; shape; location; nested. Types of raw data: species; stem count; size (stem diameter, height); cover. Types of summarized data: density (stems/ha); basal area (m2/ha); species importance values, compositional (continuum) index; similarity index..

Environmental sampling procedures. Soil: profile description; soil depth, rooting depth; horizon samples for bulk density, texture and nutrients. Topography: aspect (azimuth, transformations); elevation, slope position, distance to opposing slope)..

Statistical summary of data. Relating community and environmental data using regression analysis. Simple linear regression; multiple linear regression; type of data; minimum number of samples; forward and backward stepwise procedures; F-ratios; r and coefficient of determination; plotting residuals; validating model with independent data set; variation accounted for; interpretation; examples of studies; application to resource management.

Brief review of gradient analysis techniques. Ordination of community and environmental data..

Chapter 20. Vegetation Classification and Mapping (S. Franklin).

A recent thrust in forest/plant ecology that has brought the science full circle since the 1930's. It comes with new methodology but an absence of the major conceptual debate over the community concept vs. continuum concept..

History of vegetation classification in Europe, Canada and the United States. Uses in management. Approaches to classification: top down; bottom up; integrates macroclimate with physiographic provinces and vegetation patterns; USFS cover types (overstory only; criteria); ecological/land classification . Examples from the Forest Service, Nature Conservancy, SCS and states. National vegetation classification system. Problems in interpretation. Methodology: TWINSPAN; COMPAH; ordination approaches using vegetation or environmental data (Fralish 1994); geographic information systems (GIS).

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VII. THE ECOSYSTEM.

Chapter 21. Forest Ecosystem Concepts and Modeling (J. Fralish).

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History of ecosystem concept and research, size and structure of the forest ecosystems, the laws of thermodynamics, and a generic model for understanding general function of biogeochemcial cycling..

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Ecosystem defined. Concepts: size-spatial dimension; functional criteria for boundaries (natural; measurement of inputs and outputs). Examples of ecosystems; earth; biome; physiographic province; watershed, site (Smallest ecosystem for land manager). General structure: components; abiotic; biotic; trophic levels (primary producer, primary and secondary consumers); herbivory; carnivory; food webs. Diagrammatic representation of a forest ecosystem (Fralish 1977).

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Concept of "open" system; open system vs. closed system; biogeochemical flow subsystems; compartments in forest ecosystems; diagrammatic representation (Fralish 1977). .

Energy flow: Energy defined; First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics; entropy; energy budget; input; energy flow in forest ecosystem; transfers between compartments; transformations; output (heat release). Water flow. Nutrient Flow..

Define ecosystem model; compartments; budget concept (inputs, transfers, transformations; storage; output). Types of graphic models; graphic model for mathematical model; universal mathematical model; change rate (dy/dt for each compartment/chemical element). The change rate for compartment 3 (e.g., detritus) = dy/dt = I3 + O3 + T13 - T31, etc where I represents input to Compartment 3 from outside the ecosystem, O3 represents output from compartment 3 to outside the ecosystem, T13 represents a transfer of material from compartment 1 to compartment 3 inside the ecosystem, and T31 represents transfers from compartment 3 into compartment 1 inside the ecosystem. Models and results from International Biological Program, Hubbard Brook Watershed experiments, Forest Service Forest Response Program and from German Soling studies..

Chapter 22. Biogeochemistry of Forest Ecosystems (K. Williard & J. Schoonover).

An examination of the open flow systems, water flow system and the biogeochemical subsystems and chemistry of important elements and molecules in soil and the atmosphere..

Movement of water in the large scale ecosystems. Hydrologic cycle, hydrology. Precipitation, evapotranspiration, infiltration, soil water, ground water, stream flow..

Nutrient cycling between forest ecosystems, an overview of nutrient cycles: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, potassium. Atmospheric chemistry. Nutrient cycling within soils and plants: decomposition/remineralization, translocation, nutrient use efficiency..

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VIII. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND MANAGEMENT TOOLS.

Chapter 23. Silviculture, and Ecosystem Management (J. Groninger).

This chapter will describe how species ecological characteristics dictate the type of silvicultural techniques used to manage the community types within a forest. Consideration is given to the balancing of passive management vs. active management and ecosystem sustainability..

An outline of the European roots of North American silviculture and its modification to forest conditions..

Ecosystem management vs. single species, population or community. 1) Size of area needed. Reasons for maintaining ecosystem integrity: high water quality; soil maintenance; high biodiversity; traditional uses--productivity. 2) The forest succession problem (oak to maple/beech, lodgepole pine to Douglas-fir; Douglas-fir to hemlock/true fir, redwood and sequoia to true fir; southern pine to oak; aspen/birch to spruce fir). 3) The old growth conundrum (reduction in animal and plant biodiversity, shifting mosaic; area needed to a stabilize an ecosystem; 4) Conflicts and conflict resolution between problems 1, 2 and 3. The theory and practice of planning for and managing a large regional ecosystem. Sustainability..

Examples from tree, forest plantation, and ecosystem management from Europe, Australia, and New Zealand..

Chapter 24. Forest Wildlife Management (E. Hellgren).

A review of basic needs of wildlife (food, water, cover/nesting habitat.) and the influence of forest condition, disturbance, and loss of habitat on animal populations. Examples of management for common as well as rare and endangered species will be outlined..

Relationship of forest ecology and management to biodiversity. Influence of overstory tree composition. Types of wildlife in forests: common, threatened, endangered. The dynamic forest mosaic: spatial and temporal scales, disturbance regimes and wildlife community response to vegetative succession. The effect of edge, islands and fragments, forest loss and fragmentation, riparian forests as wildlife refugia, corridors. Management strategies: vertical structure, snags, stumps, & salvage timber, green-tree reservoirs. Laws and protection. Case studies: red-cockaded woodpecker, Kirtland’s warbler, spotted owl, porcupine-fisher, white-tailed deer, and moose. Neotropical migrant songbirds, cowbirds and interior forest. Threatened and endangered species..

Chapter 25. Watershed Management (K. Williard and J. Schoonover) (possibly adding David DeWalle (Watershed Manag